Studies in English

Immunology

Immunology

The goal of the Immunology course is to provide our students with basic knowledge regarding the immune system and its role in host protection against various infections, as well as its involvement in the pathological processes that may lead to tissue injury and disease.

Through this course, students will become familiar with basic terminology used in Immunology and will learn about the components and organization of the immune system and how those components cooperate to provide adequate and useful immune responses. Students will understand the mechanisms used for elimination of various microbes and malignantly transformed cells. In addition, students will learn about the conditions in which the immune system is involved in organ and tissue damage and the possibilities of immunotherapies aimed to modulate such harmful responses. This course will also provide students with the basic knowledge regarding the mechanism of action of different vaccine types, immunological aspects of transplantation and prevention of graft rejection and the consequences of defective immune responses seen in immunodeficiencies.

Through lab practice, students will learn about the immunological parameters that can be analyzed in the evaluation of patients and different immunological methods used in clinical laboratories for these purposes. At the end of the Immunology course, students will be able to apply the acquired knowledge through discussion of clinical cases.

Finally, this course will enable students to understand various topics covered by other courses at the Faculty of Medicine and help them in professional communication with colleagues, as well as in critical review and analyses of scientific articles.

Professors:  

Professor Vera Pravica

Professor Miloš Marković

Associate professor Emina Milošević

Assistant professor Irena Vuković

Teaching Assistant Aleksandar Paunić

 

Course director:

Associate professor Emina Milošević

 

Secretary of the department:

Teaching Assistant Aleksandar Paunić

IMMUNOLOGY (Curriculum)

2025/2026 academic year

 

The seminars and labs are held in the classrooms of the Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, while the lectures are held in the in the newly renovated main classroom in the Head Building, Dr Subotica 8, II floor, hall to the right (for more information please refer to Immunology schedule in the news section).

Please note that in some weeks the mini-essays are held for all groups in the beggining of the seminars (for more details please refer to Grading policy and Mini-essays sections).

 

07/11/2025

Introduction to the immune system

Lecture:

Introduction to Immunology. Historical overview of the development of Immunology. Phylogeny and ontogenesis of the immune system.

Seminar:

Nomenclature and basic properties of the immune system. Innate and adaptive immunity. Types of adaptive immunity. Properties and phases of immune responses. Organs, tissues, cells and molecules of the immune system.

Lab:

Functional anatomy of the immune system.

 

 

14/11/2025

Innate immunity

Lecture:

The role of the microbiota in the development and functioning of the immune system. Memory in innate immunity.

Seminar:

Recognition of microbes and damaged cells by the innate immune system. Components of innate immunity. Innate immune reactions. Role of innate immunity in stimulating adaptive immune responses.

Lab:

Diseases caused by innate immunity disorders (gout, familial Mediterranean fever, chronic granulomatous disease).

 

 

21/11/2025

Antigen capture and presentation to lymphocytes

Lecture:

Antigens. Recognition of antigens by T and B cells. Capture of protein antigens by antigen-presenting cells.

Seminar:

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC). The structure and function of MHC molecules. Processing and presentation of protein antigens.

Lab:

Clinical relevance of HLA polymorphism.

 

 

28/11/2025

Antigen recognition in the adaptive immune system

Lecture:

TCR – structure and interaction with MHC-peptide complex. Superantigens

Seminar:

Structure of antibodies. Development of immune repertoires and production of diverse antigen receptors. Maturation and selection of T cells and B cells.

Lab:

Monoclonal antibodies and their application in medicine.

 

 

05/12/2025

 T cell-mediated immune response

Lecture:

Cell-mediated immunity. Populations of T-lymphocytes (CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, regulatory T cells, memory T cells).

Seminar:

Phases of T-cell response. Antigen recognition and costimulation of T cells. Activation, clonal expansion and differentiation of naïve T cells into effector and memory T cells. Migration of T lymphocytes in cell-mediated immune reactions. Decline of Immune response.

Lab:

Therapeutic blockade of T-lymphocyte activation and function. Disorders in leukocyte adhesion.

 

 

12/12/2025

Effector mechanisms of T cell-mediated immunity

Lecture:

Role of cytokines in immune response.

Seminar:

Development and effector functions of CD4+ T lymphocytes (Th1, Th2 and Th17 cells). Development and effector functions of CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs).

Lab:

Leprosy, mucocutaneous candidiasis and psoriasis.

 

 

19/12/2025

Humoral immune responses

Lecture:

Humoral immunity. Phases of B cell response. B cell population.

Seminar:

T-dependent and T-independent humoral response. Stimulation of B lymphocytes by antigen. Functions of helper T lymphocytes in humoral immune responses to protein antigens. Antibody responses to T-independent antigens. Regulation of humoral immune response.

Lab:

Bruton agammaglobulinemia and hyper IgM syndrome. Consequences of splenectomy on the immune response.

 

 

26/12/2026

Effector mechanisms of humoral immunity

Lecture:

Complement system – activation, functions and regulation.

Seminar:

Effector functions of antibodies. Function of antibodies at special anatomic sites (mucosal and neonatal immunity).

Lab:

Deficiencies of complemet system.

 

 

 

Colloquium (exact date, place and time will be announced in due time)

 

 

02/01/2026

Immunity in infection and antigen-antibody reactions (Part I)

Lecture:

Mechanism of defense against bacterial, viral, fungal and parasitic infections. Evasion of immunity by bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites.

Seminar:

General features of antigen-antibody reactions. Immunological methods – Immunoagglutination and Immunoprecipitation.

Lab:

Diagnostic application of Immunoagglutination and Immunoprecipitation.

 

 

 

Colloquium (for those who were justifiably absent from the first one)

           

(exact date, place and time will be announced in due time)

 

 

09/01/2026

Immunodeficiencies and antigen-antibody reactions (Part II)

Lecture:

Primary (congenital) and secondary (acquired) immunodeficiencies.

Seminar:

Immunological methods: antigen-antibody reactions with labeled reagents (enzyme immunoassay, Immunofluorescence, radioimmunoassay and rapid immunochromatographic tests.).

Lab:

Diagnostic application of enzyme immunoassay, Immunofluorescence, radioimmunoassay and rapid immunochromatographic tests.

 

 

16/01/2026

Immunological tolerance and autoimmunity

Lecture:

Immunological tolerance – general principles and significance.

Seminar:

Mechanisms of central and peripheral tolerance of T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes. Role of genetic factors, infections and other environmental factors in the development of autoimmunity.

Lab:

Autoimmune thyroiditis and systemic lupus erythematosus.

 

 

23/01/2026

Hypersensitivity reactions

Lecture:

Disorders caused by immune responses. Type of hypersensitivity reactions and mechanisms of cell/tissue/organ injury.

Seminar:

Type I, II, II and IV hypersensitivity reactions (mechanisms of tissue injury, clinical syndromes and therapy).

Lab:

Diagnosis of hypersensitivity diseases.

 

 

30/01/2026

Inhibition of immune responses and immune responses against transplants

Lecture:

Principles of inhibition of immune responses. Immunosuppressive drugs.

Seminar:

Immune responses against transplants. Transplantation antigens. Induction of immune responses and mechanisms of graft rejection. Prevention and treatment of graft rejection.

Lab:

Clinical aspects of transplantation (kidney and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation).

 

 

06/02/2026

Immunostimulation and immune responses against tumors

Lecture:

Principles of immunostimulation.

Seminar:
 

Immune responses against tumors. Tumor antigens. Immune mechanisms of tumor rejection. Evasion of immune response by tumors. Cancer immunotherapy.

Lab:

Immunotherapy of prostate tumors, melanoma and leukemia.

 

 

13/02/2026

Evaluation of the immune system and immunoprophylaxis of infectious dieseases

Lecture:

Evaluation of the immune system. Principles of diagnosis of immune-mediated diseases and immunodeficiencies.

Seminar:

Principles of immunoprophylaxis of infectious diseases. Passive immunization. Active immunization – vaccines.

Lab:

Assessment of post-vaccinal immunity.

 

Textbook:

Abul K. Abbas, Andrew H. Lichtman, Shiv Pillai. Basic Immunology: Functions and disorders of the immune system, Seventh edition, Elsevier, 2023

 

Other materials:

Pre-recorded lectures and supplementary reading materials available on the official website of the University of Belgrade - Faculty of Medicine (UBFM)

 

Assessment and evaluation of students

The assessment of students takes into account their engagement during lectures (points for lecture attendance), seminars and labs (continuous evaluation through the points for mini-essays), points collected on the colloquium (performed after 8 weeks of the course) and success in the final test (all points are recorded in personal student cards and the students' electronic records).

Points for lecture attendance are obtained for the regular attendance of lectures (maximally 3 points during the semester). The attendance of the lectures are recorded (every student should sign in the list provided) and points are awarded using the following scale: being present at 8-9 lectures brings to a student 1 point, at 10-12 lectures brings 2 points and at 13 and more lectures brings 3 points (Please note that according to the Rulebook on organization of teaching courses of integrated academic studies of medicine in English, a student should be present on more than 50% of lectures to be eligible for the points based on lecture attendance).

Points for mini-essays are obtained for a successfully written mini-essay at the beginning of the seminar/lab. Mini-essays are designed as short answers consisting of several sentences to a given question. The questions will cover everything that will be done (both on seminars and lectures) in the current week (i.e. mini-essays are to be prepared in advance). The list of topics, tasks and questions for mini-essays (5 for each week) is available on the official website of the Faculty of Medicine. Each successfully written mini-essay test brings one point to a student. The maximum number of points that can be collected in this way is 7 (the total number of mini-essays is 7). The essays are done on weeks 4,5,7 and 11-14.

Colloquium is a form of the test that is held after 8 weeks of lessons and covers the entire material done during these 8 weeks (that corresponds to the first eight chapters of the textbook). It consists of questions with multiple choice answers (MCQs) with one correct answer out of four (1 point is given for each correct answer) and short-answer questions which are open-ended questions that require students to create an answer and explain some important immunological terms (between 0 and 2 points are given depending on the quality of answer).

  • There are two terms for taking the test.
  • The attendance on the first term is mandatory. The maximum number of points that a student can collect is 20.
  • Second term for taking the test is one week later. Students eligible to attend the second test are only those who were justifiably absent (they must provide an appeal to the Department of Immunology with justification for their absence)
  • The result of colloquium will be recorded in the student’s personal card, the index and the electronic database.

Final test represents a form of written test that carries a total number of 70 points. The threshold for passing the final test is 36 points. The final test has the following structure:

  • 20 multiple choice questions (MCQs) with one correct answer out of four (1 point for each correct answer, max. 20 points)
  • 5 “fill-in-the-gap” type of sentences where correct word(s) should be written in the blanks (5 topics are covered, each with 4 blanks; each correct answer is worth 2 point, max. 40 points)
  • 2 mini-essays (topics that require short answers of several sentences; each essay may bring between 0 and 5 points depending on the quality of answer, max. 10 points)

The final assessment of Immunology course

The final grade in Immunology course is formed as a sum of all points that a student collects continuously during classes for the regular attendance of lectures and successful writing of mini-essays (maximum 10 points), on the colloquium (maximum 20 points) and the final test (maximum 70 points).

The threshold for passing the exam in Immunology is 51 points (out of 100).

In order to pass the exam in Immunology, students must get at the final test at least 36 points (the threshold for passing). If the student during the semester does not reach the threshold in writing mini essays tests and colloquium (i.e. he/she has less than 15 points in total), that student should perform better at the final test (i.e. he/she should obtain the number of points needed to reach the total sum of 51 points).

Conversion of the total number of points in the final grade is done according to the following table:

Final number of points

Final grade

(number of total points out of 100)

(from 5 to 10)

≤ 50

5 (not passed)

51-60

6

61-70

7

71-80

8

81-90

9

91-100

10

 

 

IMMUNOLOGY (Topics for mini-essays)

2025/2026 academic year

 

 

Mini-essays are designed as short answers consisting of several sentences to a given question using your own words (your sentences should be substantially different from the text available in the textbook or elsewhere). Any similarity of your response with the response of any other student will be considered as invalid and no points will be awarded to students with such similar responses.

Each successfully written mini-essay test will bring one point to a student. The maximum number of points that can be collected in this way is 7 (the total number of mini-essays is 7).

The dates and topics for mini-essays are provided below. Please note that the topics represent parts of the chapters from the textbook, so you should use them while preparing for the mini-essays.

 

 

28/11/2025

Mini-essay in Week 4

 
  1. Compare and contrast the structure and function of T cell receptors (TCRs) and antibodies.
  2. Outline the process of V(D)J recombination in generating antigen receptor diversity.
  3. Describe the process of positive and negative selection in T cell maturation.
  4. Explain tolerance mechanisms during B cell development in the bone marrow.
  5. Explain how defects in antigen receptor generation can lead to immunodeficiency diseases.

05/12/2025

Mini-essay in Week 5

 
  1. Describe the key phases of a T cell immune response from antigen encounter to resolution of infection.
  2. Explain the principles of antigen recognition and co-stimulation required for naïve T cell activation.
  3. Describe the process of clonal expansion of T cells following activation.
  4. Compare the effector functions of CD4+ helper T cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells.
  5. Explain differences in migration patterns of naïve, effector and memory T cells.

19/12/2025

Mini-essay in Week 7

 
  1. Explain differences between T-dependent and T-independent activation of B cells.
  2. Describe the roles of helper T cells in T-dependent activation of B cells.
  3. Discuss the differences between primary and secondary antibody responses.
  4. Compare the roles of marginal zone B cells and follicular B cells in immune responses.
  5. How feedback inhibition regulates humoral immune responses.

16/01/2026

Mini-essay in Week 11

 
  1. Define immunological tolerance and explain mechanisms of central tolerance in T lymphocytes.
  2. Describe the mechanisms of peripheral tolerance in T lymphocytes.
  3. Explain central and peripheral tolerance mechanisms in B lymphocytes.
  4. Explain the function of regulatory T cells in tolerance.
  5. Explain how infections can trigger or exacerbate autoimmune disorders.

23/01/2026

Mini-essay in Week 12

 
  1. Describe the sequence of events in a Type I (immediate) hypersensitivity reaction.
  2. Discuss the roles of IgE, mast cells, and eosinophils in allergic responses.
  3. Explain the mechanisms of immune injury in Type II (antibody-mediated) hypersensitivity and give examples of diseases.
  4. Describe the immune complexes and mechanisms underlying Type III hypersensitivity reactions and give examples of diseases.
  5. Explain the role of sensitized T lymphocytes in Type IV (delayed-type) hypersensitivity and give examples of diseases.

30/01/2026

Mini-essay in Week 13

 
  1. Explain how T cells recognize alloantigens and initiate graft rejection.
  2. Compare the mechanisms of hyperacute, acute, and chronic graft rejection.
  3. Describe the main classes of immunosuppressive drugs and their mechanisms of action.
  4. Explain pre-transplantation testing which aims to reduce graft rejection.
  5. Explain the mechanism of graft-versus-host disease after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.

06/02/2026

Mini-essay in Week 14

 
  1. Describe the differences between tumor-specific antigens and tumor-associated antigens.
  2. Explain how the immune system recognizes and destroys tumor cells.
  3. Describe mechanisms by which tumors evade immune surveillance.
  4. Explain how therapeutic vaccines can be designed to enhance anti-tumor immunity.
  5. Describe the principles and potential side effects of immunostimulatory cancer therapies.

 

Here you can download the supplementary material:

  • Immunoprophylaxis of infectious diseases  download
  • Antigen-antibody reactions (Immunoagglutination and Immunoprecipitation) download
  • Antigen-antibody reactions with labeled reagents download
  • Evaluation of the immune system download

 

List of lectures

2025/2026 academic year

 

Lectures are held every Friday from 13:00 till 13:45 (for students of all groups) in the in the newly renovated main classroom in the Head Building (Dr Subotica 8, II floor, hall to the right). The presence of students on the lectures will be registered. All lectures will be available in recorded format on the online study platform.

 

Week 1
(7.11.2025.)

Introduction to the immune system  – historical overview of the development of Immunology

Assoc. Prof. Emina Milošević

Week 2
(14.11.2025.)

Role of microbiota in the development and functioning of the immune system and memory in innate immunity

Assoc. Prof. Emina Milošević

Week 3 (21.11.2025.)

Antigens and antigen-presenting cells

Professor Miloš Marković

Week 4
(28.10.2025.)

TCR and superantigens

Assist. Prof. Irena Vuković

Week 5
(5.12.2025.)

Populations of T-lymphocytes (CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, regulatory T cells, memory T cells)

Professor Miloš Marković

Week 6
(12.12.2025.)

Role of cytokines in immune response

Assoc. Prof. Emina Milošević

Week 7
(19.12.2025.)

Humoral immunity – phases of B cell response and B cell population

Assoc. Prof. Emina Milošević

Week 8
(26.12.2025.)

Complement system – activation, functions and regulation

Professor Miloš Marković

Week 9
(2.1.2026.)

Mechanism of defense against bacterial, viral, fungal and parasitic infections

Professor Miloš Marković

Week 10
(9.1.2026.)

Primary and secondary immunodeficiences

Assist. Prof. Irena Vuković

Week 11
(16.1.2026.)

Immunological tolerance – general principles and significance

Assist. Prof. Irena Vuković

Week 12
(23.1.2026.)

Type of hypersensitivity reactions and mechanisms of cell/tissue/organ injury

Assist. Prof. Irena Vuković

Week 13
(30.1.2026.)

Principles of inhibition of immune responses –immunosuppressive drugs

Professor Miloš Marković

Week 14
(6.2.2026.)

Principles of immunostimulation

Assoc. Prof. Emina Milošević

Week 15
(13.2.2026.)

Evaluation of the immune system and principles of diagnosis of immune-mediated diseases and immunodeficiencies.

Assist. Prof. Irena Vuković

 

E-mail: imunologija@med.bg.ac.rs

Tel: 011/3643-236

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